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SCHEME OF WORK
WEEK TOPIC
THEME: MAP READING AND INTERPRETATION
1. Basic Concepts in Map Reading :(a) Map – Definition, Types, Examples and Uses. (b) Marginal Information (c) Conventional Symbols

2. Scales: (a) Types; (Linear, Statement and Representative Fraction or Ratio (b) Attributes(c) Merits and Demerits of each type. (d) Scale Conversion.

3. Map Distances: (a) Measurement and units (b) Conversion; (i) Conversion from map distance to actual distance (ii) Conversion of actual distance to map distance.

4. Map Reduction and Enlargement: (a) Map Reduction and Enlargement – Grid and square methods (b) Scale (small, medium and large scales).

5. Interpretation of Physical Features: (a) Contour lines – definition of contour lines, vertical intervals, form lines, etc. (b) Physical features – Ridges, Gaps, Col, Saddle, Pass, Crest, Spurs, Valleys, Hills, Plateaux, Rivers and streams, etc.

6. Interpretation of Cultural Features:(a)Roads and Foot paths (b) Communication lines (c) Settlements, schools, markets, church, mosque etc.

THEME: ECONOMIC AND HUMAN GEOGRAPHY
7. Transportation: (a) Modes of transportation; (i) Road, (ii) Rail, (iii) Water, (iv) Air, (v) Pipeline, (vi) Cable, etc. (b) Transportation means associated with each mode.

8. Transportation: (c) Merits and demerits of each type of transportation mode/means. (d) Importance of transportation (i) Movement of people and commodities (goods) (ii) Local, National and International Trade (iii) Transfer of Technology, diffusion of ideas and innovations, (iv) National Integration. (e) Transportation problems.

9. Industry: (a) Classification of Industries; (i) Primary, Secondary, Tertiary and Quaternary (ii) Heavy industry and Light industry. (b) Factors affecting industrial location – Raw materials, Market, Capital, Labour, etc. (c) Problems of industrial location.

THEME: INTRODUCTORY GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM (GIS)
10. Basic Concepts of GIS: (a) Geographic Information Systems (GIS) (b) Geographic data :(i) Meaning/Examples – Line for rivers, roads, rail, etc. Points for boreholes, buildings, settlements, towns, farms, etc. (ii) Sources (maps, field work, Satellite images, etc. (c) Importance of geo-referencing, geographic data and the GIS.

11. Components of GIS:(a) Hardware Components: (i) Digitizer, (ii) Global Positioning System (GPS), (iii) Computer (iv) Printer (v) Scanner, etc. (b) Software for: (i) Data Input, (ii) Storage, (iii) Retrieval, (iv) Manipulation. (c) Data: (i) Positional (ii) Relational. (d) Procedures: Sets of Rules. (e) People: Experts.

12. Revision

13. Examination

TOPIC: BASIC CONCEPT OF MAP READING
CONTENT: 1. Map – Definition, Types, Examples and Uses
2. Conventional Symbols
SUB-TOPIC 1: Map – Definition, Types, Examples and Uses
Definition of Map and Map Reading
Maps are the graphical representation of the earth’s surface or part of it on a plane surface such as sheet of paperdrawn to scale. The map of an area shows the features of the area.
Map Reading: Map reading is the ability to recognize the conventional signs and symbols as used on maps and to interpret them.
Typesof Map
Map can be classified into the following types:
1. Topographical maps: These are large scale maps which cover relatively small areas, but give detailed information concerning the geographical features of the area that is represented. Such features include relief (which are represented by contour lines), drainage, vegetation and other man-made features like settlements, communication lines, etc. Below is an example of a topographic map.

Topographic Map
Topographical maps are also known as Ordinance Survey Maps. Students refer to them as contour maps.
2. Atlas maps: These are small-scale maps that represent very large areas ranging in size from a local government area to a state, a country, a continent and even the whole world. Atlas maps do not contain as much detailed information about the area as topographical maps.

Atlas Map of Nigeria

3. Sketch maps: They are freehand drawn maps, drawn to illustrate a particular point. These maps are not usually drawn to scale. Neither are they drawn with any regard to details or accuracy.


Sketch Map
4. Plan maps: Plans are drawing for specific purpose. They are usually drawn on a large scale and show the detailed information about an area. E.g building plan.

Abuja Master Plan
Others: Other types of maps include:
1. Cadastral maps – which contain land-use features.
2. Route maps – which contain route distances and features along routes to help tourists and road users.
3. Plans of buildings, farms, school compounds, etc.
Uses of Map
1. To locate places on the earth
2. To represent geographical area
3. Road maps guide the road users on the direction and distance they have to travel to get to their destination
4. Map gives information about a particular place. E.g African map, Nigerian map, etc.
5. Weather maps provide required information to be used by aeroplane pilots and ship captains
6. Plan maps are used in buildings and constructions
Sub-Topic3:CONVENTIONAL SYMBOLS
Meaning of Conventional Symbols
Conventional symbols are the various signs used by map makers (cartographers) to represent both natural and cultural features on the map. These symbols can be grouped as follows:
i. Line symbols
ii. Point symbols
iii. Pictorial symbols
iv. Literal symbols
Line Symbols: These are used on topographical maps to show features like rivers, roads, boundaries, railways, telegraph lines, pipelines, etc.

Line Symbols
Point Symbols: These are used to represent heights of places such as bench marks, survey pillars, spot heights, trig stations, houses, settlements, farms, etc.
Pictorial Symbols: These are the use of pictures to represent features on the map. Pictorial symbols were the first set of symbols used by geographers to represent relief.

Pictorial Symbols
Literal Symbols: These are letter abbreviation used to show the location of some features. E.g. ch= church, mkt= market, RH= Rest house, Disp. = Dispensary, sch= school, etc.
EVALUATION:
1. Define (i) map (ii) map reading
2. Explain three types of map
3. Mention three types of conventional symbols
4. State what each of these abbreviations represents (i) msq (ii) mkt (iii) RH
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT:
1. Use pencil to draw the following signs
(i) primary road
(ii) secondary road
(iii) trigonometric station
(iv) spot height
(v) railway
READING ASSIGNMENT:
Read map reading for West Africa by D.A. Nimako. Pages 1-3
PRE-READING ASIGNMENT:
Read the next topic- Scale and its types.
REFERENCE TEXTS:
1. Map Reading for West Africa by D.A. Nimako.
2. A Practical Approach to Map-Reading for West Africa (fourth edition) by C.A. Aso

TOPIC: SCALES
CONTENT: 1. Types of scale- the merits and demerits
2. Scale conversion.
Meaning of Map Scales
A map scale expresses the relationship between the distance or size of objects on a map and the actual distance or size of the objects on the ground. In another words, it is the ratio or relationship between measurement on the map and the actual measurement on the ground. For example, if the scale of a map is 1cm to 1km, it means that for every 1km in the ground, it is represented by 1cm on the paper.
Types of Scale
There are three types of scales. They are:
(i) Statement scale
(ii) Representative fraction or ratio scale (RF)
(iii) Linear scale
STATEMENT SCALE
This is a scale usually expressed as the ratio of map size to the actual size of an area in words. The statement scale can be stated in different ways. For example, once centimetre to represent two kilometres or 1cm to 1km. This means that 1cm represents the distance on map while the last figure, 1km represents the distance on the ground. Note, it is not correct t0 say that one centimetre is equal to one kilometre or 1cm =1km.
How to Use Statement Scale
i. Note the two places involved
ii. Measure the distance between the two places and relate it to the scale.
E.g. If a scale of a map is 2cm to 1km, what is the ground distance if the distance between the two places on the map is 10cm
Solution:
Map distance= 10cm
Ground distance= ?
Map scale = 2cm to 1km
Since 2cm=1km
Therefore: 10cm=10/2×1km =5km
The ground distance between the two places is 5km.
Merits of statement scale
i. It is simple and easy to understand
ii. It helps to get actual distance on ground
Demerits of statement scale
i. It is difficult to convert
ii. It is not error free
REPRESENTATIVE FRACTION (R.F)
RF scale expresses the ratio of map to ground numerically. The distance on the map and the distance on the ground are expressed in form of fraction or ratio. E.g. or 1:50,000. The numerator “1” represents a length on the map while the denominator “50,000” represents the actual distance on the ground. Both the numerator and denominator are in the same unit (cm).
How to UseRepresentative Scale
i. Measure the distance between the two places either by ruler or tread
ii. Relate the distance measured to the scale.
Example: If the scale of a map is 1:200,ooo, what is the ground distance if the distance between two towns on the map is 10cm?
Solution: Map distance= 10cm
Ground distance=?
Therefore; ground distance= 10cm×200,000 = 20km
100,000
Merits of RF Scale
i. It shows the difference between the actual distance and the map distance in ratio
ii. No conversion of unit is needed because both the numerator and denominator are the same unit
iii. It can be used to calculate the distance on ground.
Demerits of RF Scale
i. The answer may not be accurate if not properly calculated
LINEAR SCALE
A linear scale is a line drawn to represent the relationship between the distance on the map and that of the actual distance on the ground. It is shown in the form of a bar by means of straight line sub-divided so that length measured on the map can easily be read as true measurement on the ground. Linear scale is divided into two parts: Primary divisions and Secondary divisions.

Linear Scale
The primary divisions show the full unit length while the secondary divisions are sub-divided into a smaller units. The advantages of linear scale are:
1. It saves the student from the trouble of calculation required in other scales.
2. It is always remains correct
HOW TO USE LINEAR SCALE
1. Determine the required distance on the map with a piece of strong string, a edge of paper or dividers.
2. Take your measurement to ruler in centimeters
3. Then take the distance measured in cm to the scale and begins the measurement from the origin marked (0) and stretch it to the right (primary divisions). Wherever it ends represents the distance on the ground either in kilometers or miles.
4. If the length is longer than the scale, record the first measurement where it ends and then measure the remaining part again starting from zero (0). Later add the two measurements together.
EVALUATION:
1. List three types of scale
2. Explain each of the types of scale
3. State two merits and demerits of any two types of scale mentioned above

Sub-Topic2: CONVERSION OF SCALE
In map reading one type of scale can be converted into another one.
A. CONVERSION FROM STATEMENT SCALE TO R.F
Example: Convert 1cm to 1km to RF scale
Solution: 1cm to 1km
Convert to same unit by multiplying number of kilometers by 100,000
1cm to (1 x 100,000)
= 1cm to 100,000cm
RF = 1:100,000 or 1/100,000

B. CONVERSION FROM REPRESENTATIVE FRACTION SCALE TO STATEMENT SCALE
Example:
Convert 1:50,000 to Statement Scale

Solution:
1:50,000 = 1cm to 50,000
Divide 50,000 by 100,000
=1cm represents
=1cm to 1/2km

C. CONVERSION OF LINEAR TO STATEMENT OR RF
Follow the procedure giving earlier

NOTE that:
1:100,000 is the same as 1cm to 1oo,ooo cm or 1km
1:50,000 is the same as 1cm to ½km 0r 2cm to 1km
1:200,000 is the same as 1cm to 2km
1:25,000 is the same as 1cm to ¼km 0r 4cm to 1km
EVALUATION:
1. Convert 2cm to 1km to RF
2. Convert 1/100,000 to statement scale
3.
Convert the above linear scale to: (i) Statement scale (ii) RF Scale

GENERAL EVALUATION:


Use the scale above to answer the questions below
1. Identify two types of scale above
2. Convert the RF Scale to Statement scale
3. Convert the linear scale to (i) RF Scale (ii) Statement scale
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT:
1. Draw a linear scale and identify (i) primary section (ii) secondary section of the scale.


2. Convert the above RF Scale to statement scale
3. Convert the above linear scale to (i) RF Scale (ii) Statement scale
READING ASSIGNMENT:
Read Map Reading for West Africa by D.A Nimako. Pages 10-13
PRE-READING ASSIGNMENT:
Read about map distance
REFERENCE TEXTS:
1. Map Reading for West Africa by D.A. Nimako.
2. A Practical Approach to Map-Reading for West Africa (fourth edition) by C.A. Aso

TOPIC:MAP DISTANCE
CONTENT: 1. Measurement and Units of measurement.
2. Conversion
SUB-TOPIC 1: MEASUREMENT AND UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
Measurement of Distances
There are three types of distance that can be measured on the map.
1. MEASUREMENT OF STRAIGHT LINE DISTANCES
This is the measurement of distance between two places on a straight line. A straight line distance is usually referred to as “as the crow flies” i.e. on a straight route, way.


Straight line

PROCEDURE
- Locate the two places or points involved in question on the map.
- Measure the distance between the two places with a ruler
- Relate the distance measured in centimetre on the map to the scale of the map.
EXAMPLE: Calculate the distance as the crow flies from point A to B.
SOLUTION:
The distance between A and B = 7cm
The scale of map = 1:100,000  1cm to 1km
If 1cm to 1km,

This means that, 7cm measured on the map between A and Bis 7km on actual ground.
2. MEASUREMENT OF CURVE OR WINDING DISTANCE
Winding or curve distance include roads, railway, rivers etc. These are distances that are not straight.




Winding or Curve Distance




APPROACHES OR METHODS USED
1. USE OF THREAD: Stretch a piece of white thread along the route or curve to be measured and carefully follow all the curves or bends. Mark the end of the distance on the thread with a pen and transfer to a ruler in order to get the actual distance on the map between the two places. Relate the distance obtained to the scale of the map extract to determine the actual distance on the ground.

2. USE OF STRAIGHT EDGE OF PAPER: Turn the edge of the paper gradually along the curve being measured from one stretch to another till the whole distance is covered. Relate the measurement in the ruler and then to the scale on the map.

3. USE OF A PAIR OF DIVIDER: To use this method, break the distance into small sections from one bend to another. Use a pair of dividers to measure each short stretch and then determine the distance in centimeters from your ruler. Add up all the sections together and relate it to the scale of the map.
Example: calculate the distance along the winding line from A to B









Solution: Using tread to measure the length of the distance and relate it to ruler, you have 10cm.
Relate 10cm to the scale of the map- 1cm to 2km = 10/1 ×2km=20km
That is 10cm measured on the map is 20km on ground.
EVALUATION:
1. Mention two types of distance measured on the map
2. Highlight the procedures in measuring each of them.

SUB-TOPIC 2: Conversion
Conversion from Map Distance to Actual Distance
The conversion from map distance to actual distance is done by converting the distance on map to the ground distance using the scale of the map.
Example 1: If the map distance is 8cm and the scale of the map is 1: 200,ooo.Calculate the actual distance on ground using either RF or statement scale.
Solution:
R.F Scale: 1:200, 000 Statement Scale: 1cm to 2km
8cm=8×20,000
10,000 =16km
8cm= 8×2km= 16km
This means that the actual distance on ground is 16km when the map distance is 8cm
Conversion from Actual Distance to Map Distance.
Example: If the ground distance between two places is 20km, what will be the map distance if the scale of the map is 1cm to 1km?
Solution:
Ground distance= 20km
Map scale = 1cm to 1km
Since 1cm=1km, Map distance= 20cm
EVALUATION:
1. Calculate the map distance if the ground distance is 40km and the map scale is 1:200,000
2. What will be the ground distance if the map distance is 15cm and the map scale is 1cm to ½ km

GENERAL EVALUATION:
1. State three types of scale used in map reading
2. Describe any two of the scales mentioned above
3. Convert to 1cm to ½ km to RF scale
4. Convert 1:300,000 to statement scale
5. If the map distance is 12cm and the scale of the map is 1:200,000, calculate the ground distance. Illustrate your answer with linear scale.
WEEKEND ASSIGNMET:
1. Map Reading for West Africa by D.A. Nimako. Map 1 Koforidual NW. Use the map to answer this question
(i) Measure the distance of the main road
(ii) Convert your answer to ground distance measurement.
READING ASSIGNMENT:
Read Map Reading for West Africa by D.A Nimako. Pages 13-17
PRE-READING ASSIGNMENT:
Read about map reduction and enlargement
REFERENCE TEXTS:
1. Map Reading for West Africa by D.A. Nimako.
2. A Practical Approach to Map-Reading for West Africa (fourth edition) by C.A. Aso

TOPIC:MAP REDUCTION AND ENLARGEMENT
CONTENT:
1. Map Copying
2. Map Reduction
3. Map Enlargement
4. Scale
Sub-Topic 1: MAP COPYING
Map copying is the ability to reproduce a given map extract as it is initially. This can best be done with the use of GRID LINES.
Grid Lines are lines drawn vertically and horizontally on map extracts. The lines are use to enlarge or reduce the original map to a given size, and to determine the position of a place or feature accurately. The distance between grid lines must be the same.
The number of grid lines should be in two digits figure such as 10, 15, 20, 25 etc.

Vertical grid lines are numbered from west to east and it is called ‘easting’ because they increase towards the east. The horizontal grid lines are numbered from south to north and called ‘northing’ because they increase towards the north. The combination of eastings and northings produces a four figure or six figure grid lines.
In the use of grid lines, the easting is read first while the northing is read last. For example, the position of A in the above grid system is 8242 (Four-grid system) while the position of B is 815415 (six-grid system).
Sub-Topic 2: MAP REDUCTION
Map reduction is the making of a given map smaller than the original one. This can be determined by the scale of the map. When the scale of the new map to be drawn is larger than the original map extract it means reduction. Eg. A scale of 1:50,000 to 1:100,000
Steps to follow:
(i) Be certain that you are reducing the map
(ii) Determine how many times the new map is to be reduced
(iii) Measure the length and width of the original map
(iv) Divide the original map into square of equal size using pencil
(v) Draw the length and width of the new map
(vi) Produce the same square in the new map
(vii) Transfer the features required into the new map from the old one.

NOTE: To get how many times you are to enlarge or reduce, divide the old scale by the new scale. This is known as the scale factor. It could be ½ or 2 or 3 or 4 times enlargement or reduction.
For example, If the scale of the original map is 1:25,000 and the scale of the new map is 1:50,000, the number of time to enlarge will be:
Old scale25,000
New scale = 50,000 = ½

EXAMPLE OF MAP REDUCTION
Study the map extract IDUMUEGBU DISTRICT on a scale of 1:200,000

(Source: WASSCE June, 2008 objective question)
Draw an outline of the map on a scale of 1:400,000 on your map locate
(i) The road from north to south
(ii) Osu and Umuogene settlements
(iii) Idumuegbu Housing Estate
(iv) Sport height 580
SOLUTION:
Steps to map reduction:
Number of time to reduce =
The length of original map = 15.5cm
The breadth of the original map = 15.5cm
The length of the new map = 15.5 x ½ = 7.8cm
The breadth of the new map = 15.5 x ½ = 7.8cm
The scale of the new map = 1:400,000

TheReduced Map

Sub-Topic 3: MAP ENLARGEMENT
Map enlargement means making the size of the original map larger than its size. Map enlargement has to do with the scale. When the scale of the new map to be drawn is smaller than the scale of the original map, then you should know that the map is to be enlarged. Eg Study the map extract on scale 1:200,000 and draw an outline of the new map on a scale of 1:100,000.
Steps to follow in map enlargement:
(viii) Be certain that you are enlarging
(ix) Determine how many times the new map is to be enlarged
(x) Measure the length and width of the original map
(xi) Divide the original map into square of equal size using pencil
(xii) Draw the length and width of the new map
(xiii) Produce the same square in the new map
(xiv) Transfer the features required into the new map from the old one.

For example, If the scale of the original map is 1:50,000 and the scale of the new map is 1:25,000, the number of time to enlarge will be:




Example of Map Enlargement
Study the map extract on a scale of 1:200,000, Using Idumu Egbu Housing Estate and the questions.

(a) Draw an outline of the map on a scale of 1:100,000 on your outline, show and name
a. Road
b. Contour 30m
SOLUTION
The map is enlargement
The number of time to be enlarged =
The length of the original map = 4.7cm
The breadth of the original map = 4cm
The length of the new map = (4.7 x 2) = 9.4cm
The breadth of the new map = (4 x 2) = 8cm
The scale of the new map = 1:100,000

The Enlarged Map
Note:Map enlargement questions from WAEC or NECO using the Topographical maps usually indicate a part of the map to be enlarged. This is done by demarcating the area to be enlarged with a square or rectangle.

SIZE OF SCALE – MAPS
The size of a scale is divided into three. They are:
1. Large Scale Maps: A large scale represents a small area of land such as small school premises etc. In this drawing, there are more details and they are bigger and clearer. A centimeter on the map will actually represent only a few meters on the ground. The smaller the denomination of a scale, the larger the scale. Examples are 1:5,000; 1:250; 1:25 etc
2. Medium Scale Map: This is in-between large and small scale. Actually this type of scale are used for most topographical maps. Examples are: 1:50,000; 1:100,000 etc. These are common with WAEC/NECO SSCEs and UMTEs.

3. Small Scale Map: This scale represents a larger area on a small sheet of paper but cannot show much detail. The larger the denominator of a scale, the smaller the scale. Examples of these are Atlas maps.

Note that the smaller the scale, the larger the mapped area while the larger the scale the smaller the mapped area.
EVALUATION:
1. Discuss how map is reduced and enlarged
2. Explain three types of size of scale
GENERAL EVALUATION:
Map Reading for West Africa by D.A. Nimako. Map 8Panguma Sheet 8I. Use the map to answer this question
1. Study the map extract on a scale of 1:50,000
Draw an outline of the map on a scale of 1:150,000 on your outline, show and name
(i) The road network on the map (ii) Panguma settlement (iii) Diamond Workings
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT:
Map Reading for West Africa by D.A. Nimako Page 2. Use the map fig. 1c to answer the questions below.
1. Study the map extract on a scale of 1:00,000
Draw an outline of the map on a scale of 1:50,000 on your outline, show and name (i) Tamale (ii) Boltanga (iii) Yagaba
READING ASSIGNMENT:
Go over this topic and practice more practical examples
PRE-READING ASSIGNMENT:
Read the interpretation of physical features
REFERENCE TEXTS:
1. Map Reading for West Africa by D.A. Nimako.
2. A Practical Approach to Map-Reading for West Africa (fourth edition) by C.A. Aso
3. Essential Geography for SSS by O.A Iwena

TOPIC: INTERPRETATION OF PHYSICAL FEATURES
CONTENT: 1. Contour lines
2. Physical features
Sub-Topic 1: CONTOUR LINE
VARIOUS METHODS OF REPRESENTING RELIEF
The term relief simply means the elevation of land areas or the height of an area above sea level. The various ways of relief representation on maps are discussed below:
1. CONTOUR: These are lines drawn to join places of equal height, level or altitude

Contour Lines
2. CONTOUR INTERVAL: This is the difference between the height of a contour line and the other. Contour lines are always numbered in meters eg 100m, 200m etc.
3. FORM CONTOUR: These are broken lines used to represent elevation of a piece of land.

Form Contour

4. HILL SHADING: This is a method of shading the height of a place with a single colour. The higher a hill or mountain is, the deeper the shade representing it.


5. HACHURES: These are short lines used on map to represent the amount of slop a land area has. A high density of hachure shows that the place has a steep slope; whereas a low density of hachure shows a gentle slope. The absence of hachure means that the place is a flat land or plain.

Hachure


6. CONTOUR LAYERING: This is the use of different colours to denote differences in height. Thus, green is used for lowlands, yellow and brown for high lands, and white for snow capped peaks. Blue is used for water bodies. The darker the blue colour, the deeper the water.

7. SPOT HEIGHT: A spot is the actual elevation of any given point or spot. The exact height is represented by a dot and the height is written beside it. E.g •347, •971 etc

8. TRIGONOMETRICAL STATIONS: These are simple points on the ground making the angles of triangulation when mapping an area. They are usually represented by a triangle and a dot in the middle with the height written by the side. Eg. 192

9. BENCH MARK: This is a permanent mark made on an object like wall, buildings, etc that indicates the height of the object. They are represented by BM or or BM 520
EVALUATION:
1. Describe the following: (i) contour line (ii) Contour interval (iii) Form contour
2. Write short notes on (i) Hachure (ii) Hill shading (iii) Contour layering
3. Give two examples each of the following: (i) Spot height (ii) Trigonometrical stations (iii) Bench mark

SUB-TOPIC 2: CONTOUR REPRESENTATION OF LANDFORMS
This has to do with the relief features produced by contour lines. It is compulsory for the students to know how to recognize or identify each of these features clearly
1. SPURS: This is a ridge of hill that branches from a large mountain mass or a projection of highlands into low ground. Spurs separate one valley from another and the contour numbering decreases outwards.

2. VALLEYS: A valley is a low land between two highlands or a depression on the earth surface bounded by hills or highland. A valley that contains water is called river valley while the one without water is called dry valley.
NOTE: Valleys and spurs look alike. The only difference is that, the valley decreases inwardly in numbering while spur decreases outwardly in numbering

Spur and Valley

3. WATER DIVIDE, WATER PARTING OR WATER SHED. The three names are alternatively used to mean the same thing. This is a hill which separates head stream of rivers flowing in different direction but obtain sources from the same mountain
.
Watershed


4. RIDGE: A ridge is a long and narrow hill usually represented by series of elongated contour lines. The contours run almost parallel to each other.

Ridge, PASS, GAPS, COLS & SADDLES
5. PASS, GAPS, COLS & SADDLES: They are depressions in hilly or mountain regions. A Pass provides communication route ways, which road and railways follow across a mountain range.

6. ESCARPMENT AND CUESTA: They refer to a hill with two sides sloping in opposite directions. That is, one side of the contour has a steep slope while the other side has gentle slope. The steep slope is marked with a closed packed contour line whilst the gentle slope has widely spaced contour lines.

Cuesta

7. HILLS:
a. Conical Hill: The contour lines are usually circular in shape and become smaller and smaller towards the centre.

Conical Hill

b. Isolated Hill: This is hill that stands apart from other hills. It may be rounded or conical in shape.

Isolated Hill


c. Round Top Hill: The contours showing round top hill are circular but do not as smaller as conical hill. The innermost contour is wide.


Round Top Hill

8. KNOLL: This is a small hill which is more or less round shape.

Knoll

9. PLATEAUX: A plateau is an extensive and broad highland area with a comparatively level surface.

Plateau
10. DISSECTED PLATEAU: This is formed when a plateau is cut off by a number of river valleys rising from higher point and flowing in different directions.

Dissected Plateau
11. CLIFF OR PRECIPE: This is a high and steep face of a rock. It is usually shown by a number of contour lines meeting together at a point. The meeting point is called cliff.

12. UNDULATING LOWLAND: This lowland gently rises and falls with low level. They are represented by irregular contours.

13. FLOOD PLAIN: This is lowland, bordering a river, formed by deposits of sediments carried down by a river. It is generally referred to as area liable to flooding.


Flood Plain

14. GEORGE, CANYON OR RAVINE: These are all steep-sided valleys. They are usually shown in contour maps by long and closely packed V-shape of contour lines.



15. WATER GAP: This is a depression which is often occupied by a river through a ridge of hard rock.
TYPES OF SLOPES
There are five (5) major types of slopes. They are:
1. GENTLE SLOPE: This occurs when the contour lines are widely spaced out or far apart.

Gentle Slope
2. STEEP SLOPE: This occurs where the contour lines are very close to one another.


Steep Slop
3. EVEN SLOPE: This is when the contour lines are of equal distance from one another. It means that the degree of steepness is the same throughout the slopes.

Even Slope

4. CONCAVE SLOPE: This is a combination of steep and gentle slopes. When ascending a concave slope, one passes the area having a gentle slope first before reaching the area having steep slope. This means that the contour lines representing concave slope are widely spaced at the lower level but closely packed at the higher level. Here, visibility is possible.

Concave Slope

5. CONVEX SLOPE: This is the opposite of concave slope. The contour are closely packed together at lower level and they become widely spaced at higher level. On a convex slope, visibility is not possible especially when the base and the top of the slope are separated by a fairly long distance.


Convex Slope
1. RIVER
a. Main river
b. Minor river
c. Area liable to flood
IDENTIFICATION OF FEATURES OF MAPS
This has to do with the ability of the students to identify each of earlier discussed features on a topographical map. This is usually done by locating the features on the map with the use of abbreviation eg.
Spur  SP
Valley  VL
Plateau  PL
Ridge  R
Dry Valley  DV etc
EVALUATION:
1. Using the map that will be given you by your teacher, identify the following features: (i) valley (ii) spur (iii) pass (iv) round top hill
GENERAL EVALUATION:
1. Describe the following: (i) contour line (ii) Contour interval (iii) Form contour
2. Write short notes on (i) Hachure (ii) Hill shading (iii) Contour layering
3. Give two examples each of the following: (i) Spot height (ii) Trigonometrical stations (iii) Bench mark
4. Using the map that will be given you by your teacher, identify the following features: (i) valley (ii) spur (iii) pass (iv) round top hill.
5. Represent these features with their abbreviations onMap 8 Panguma Sheet 8I from your map reading textbook: (i) Ridge (ii) Spur (iii) Plateau (iv)Dry valley.
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT:
1. Using the map that will be given you by your teacher, identify the following features: (i) valley (ii) spur (iii) pass (iv) spot height (v) knoll
2. Using another map identify (i) contour (ii) concave hill (iii) dissected plateau (iv) saddle (v) gap
READING ASSIGMENT:
Read Map Reading for West Africa by D.A Nimako. Pages 28-31
PRE-READING ASSIGNMENT:
Read the interpretation of cultural features on the map
REFERENCE TEXTS:
1. Map Reading for West Africa by D.A. Nimako.
2. A Practical Approach to Map-Reading for West Africa (fourth edition) by C.A. Aso
3. Essential Geography for SSS by O.A Iwena

TOPIC: Interpretation of cultural features
CONTENT: Cultural features
Sub-Topic 1: INTERPRETATION OF CULTURAL FEATURES
These are various signs and symbols used on the maps to represent both natural and human features found in an area. They enable map reader to understand the contents of the map.
The conventional signs are usually shown at the bottom of all topography maps. Some of these signs are listed below:
2. Road and foot path
a. ROAD
i. Main road
ii. Secondary Road

iii. Minor road

b. PATH
i. Main path――――――――――――――
ii. Minor path---------------------------------------------

c. Railway line

d. Airport

3. Communication lines: They include telephone and telegram lines. See the signs and symbols below.


4. SETTLEMENT:
a. TOWN
i. Main Town
ii. Other Towns
iii. Village
iv. Town walls
b. TYPES OF SETTLEMENT
i.
Nucleated or dense settlement



Linear settlement



Dispersed or scattered settlement


Nodal settlement
5. BOUNDARY
a. International Boundary
b. State Boundary
c. Divisional
Hospital, Dispensary, Church, Mission, Mosque, Court, Market and other features mentioned above are shown below
Conventional Signs
EVALUATION:
1. Use your pencil to sketch the sign of each of the following
i. Main road
ii. Minor path
iii. International boundary
iv. Nuclear settlement
v. Communication line
SUB-TOPIC 2: INTERPRETATION OF TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS
To interpret a topographical map, the following features are to be described: relief, drainage, settlement, communication and land use.
1. RELIEF: The following points are to be considered to interpret relief of a mapped area:
- Identify the highlands and lowlands area on the map
- Use contour lines, spot height, or trigonometrical station to rate the highest point and the lowest point on the land.
- Identify some specific landform such as hill, plateau, ridge etc and their location or direction on the map
-
2. DRAINAGE: Important points for interpreting drainage
- Identify the important river on the map and the direction of flow
- Identify the drainage pattern on the map and their location. The major drainage pattern includes:
i. Dendritic Drainage Pattern

Dendritic Pattern

b. Trellis Drainage Pattern

Trellis Pattern


c. Radial Drainage Pattern

Radial pattern
d. Annular Drainage Pattern


Annular pattern

e. Centripetal Drainage Pattern

Centripetal pattern

i. Identify watershed marshy areas, areas liable to flooding etc
ii. Note if there are other water bodies like lakes, oceans, boreholes and their location on the map
iii. Identify whether the rivers have delta or estuary

3. SETTLEMENT:
i. Find out the type of settlement in the map. These include rural and urban settlements. A scattered farmstead or village denotes settlement while town or cities with compacted buildings denotes urban settlement.
ii. Identify the pattern of settlement on the map whether nucleated, scattered or linear settlement
iii. Identify the direction and location of the settlement
iv. Identify the most important town on the map. Important town are usually written in block letters
v. Describe the accessibility of the settlement i.e whether the settlement is well linked with others.
vi. State the function of the settlement eg. Market town, industrial town etc.

4. COMMUNICATION:
i. Identify the means of communication such as road, railway, footpath, air (if there is airport) and river (if there are navigable rivers or lake)
ii. Note whether the road are main, secondary or minor roads. This can be determined from the conventional signs
iii. Mention the important town crossed by the road
iv. Describe the direction of the routes
v. Relate the communication to relief – whether the routes are winding to avoid steep slopes, highland or the routes pass through highlands, lowlands. Are there passes, col, gap or saddle
vi. Try to calculate rough estimate of the road

5. LAND USE PATTERN
This refers to the various ways in which land is being used on the mapped area. The land use pattern of a mapped area can be determined from the conventional signs usually found below all topographical maps. Various land use include:
i. Agricultural land use – presence of forest
ii. Industrial land use – presence of industries
iii. Mineral extraction
iv. Recreational land use
v. Commercial land use – presence of banks and market
vi. Administrative – presence of prison, police station, court etc.
EVALUATION:
1. Describe the relief and drainage system of OFOT District(WASSCE June 2010 objective test)
GENERAL EVALUATION:
1. Identify the following features on OFOT District map
i. Settlement
ii. River
iii. Road
iv. Pass
v. Area liable to flood
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT:
1. Use EDAFA DISTRICT (WASSCE June 2011 object test). On the map, identify
i. Footpath
ii. Forest
iii. Nuclear settlement
iv. Market
v. Church
vi. Trigonometrical station


READING ASSIGMENT:
Read Map Reading for West Africa by D.A Nimako. Pages 48-50, 52-54
PRE-READING ASSIGNMENT:
Read about mode of transportation
REFERENCE TEXTS:
1. Map Reading for West Africa by D.A. Nimako.
2. A Practical Approach to Map-Reading for West Africa (fourth edition) by C.A. Aso
3. Essential Geography for SSS by O.A Iwena

TOPIC:TRANSPORTATION
CONTENT:
1. Modes of Transportation
2. Means associated with transportation modes

SUB TOPIC 1: MODES OF TRANSPORTATION
Meaning of Transportation
Transportation can be defined as the movement of people, good and services from one geographical area to another.
In the olden days, good were transported using animals. However, the modern days transportation can be classified into 3, namely (i) Land transportation (ii) water transportation (iii) air transportation
Modes of Transportation
1. LAND TRANSPORTATION
Land transportation takes place on land. They include road transportation, rail transportation and specialized pipeline which is used to transport liquid materials
(a) Road Transportation
Road transportation involves the use of vehicles like cars, motor cycles, bicycles, and in very backward economies, animal like donkeys cows camel etc.
(b) Rail Transportation
The railway transportation consists of the use of locomotives and coaches that move on the gauges. These are 3 types of gauges namely; narrow, standard and broad gauge. In advanced countries, standard gauges are used which make it as one of the fastest means of transportation. Narrow gauge is meant for rugged topography while the broad gauge is for plain land.

c. Specialized land Transport
(i) Ropeways and cable ways
They are used as chain lift and cable cents. In Nigeria, it is used to transport coal in Enugu to Oji power station
(ii) Pipeline: This is a means of transporting liquid materials such as crude oil from drilling stations to refineries. It is also used to transport water from dams to consumers.
(iii) Power transmission: This is a method of transporting power from the power station to the consumers. A good example is the transmission of power from Kanji dam to all parts of the country using cables.

2. WATER TRANSPORTATION
This is the movement of people and goods on water. They are divided into 2
(i) Inland water transportation
This involves movement on inland water e.g River Niger and Benue, Lakes, Lagoons and Canals.
(ii) Ocean Transportation
This is the movement of ships on ocean and seas.

3. Air Transportation
This is the type of transportation that takes place in the air. The air transportation performs 2 services namely (i) regular flight (ii) charter flight.
(i) The regular service includes internal air transport and international flight. The internal transportation carries people from place to the other within the country, while international flight takes place between countries of the world.
(ii) Charter flight is operated upon by companies.
EVAULAUTION:
1. What is transportation
2. What are the 3 major ways of transportation
3. Name and define the 3 major types of road transportation
4. Name the two types of air transport.

Sub-Topic 2: TRANSPORTATION MEANS ASSOCIATED WITH TRANSPORTATION MODES
There are 3 major types of transport, namely land, water and air. Of these 3 types, there are different modes of transportation on them. What we now want to consider are the means of transportation on each mode

1. LAND TRANSPORTATION
In the olden days, people used human porterage (human beings carrying goods), and animals for transport on land.
(i) However, modern land transportation includes the use of bicycles, motorcycles, cars, trailers, tankers etc. On road.
(ii) Rail transportation involves the use of locomotive trains to the fastest train that can compete with aeroplanes in speed. The locomotives transport goods in wagon and trail tankers carrying fuel and other liquids. Passenger’s trains are luxurious to travel in.
(iii) There are also the specialised means of land transportation that involves the use of cables to transport power, sound etc. Pipes to transport fuel, water etc.

2. WATER TARNSPORTATION
The oldest means of water transport were the paddle canoes, followed by the wind driven ships. Modern days means of water transport involve the use of large ships, different kinds of boats, submarines, engine driven canoes, war ships use by Navy, trawlers used for fishing speed boat etc.

3. AIR TRANSPORT
There are different types of aeroplane used to fly from place to place within few hours today. They range from helicopters, and jets to large planes carrying hundreds of people, and cargo planes carry cars etc.

EVALUATION:
(i) Name any 4 means of land transport
(ii) Mention any 2 fast moving water transport means.
(iii) What is a cargo plane?

GENERAL EVALUATION:
1. What is rail transportation
2. Explain how pipeline transportation takes place.
3. What is air transportation
4. Name 3 means of water transportation
5. Name 3 means of air transportation

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
Objective Test
Thick the correct answer from options A – E
1. Which of the following is not a land transportation? (a) Road transportation (b) Rail transportation (c) Pipeline transportation (d) Rope way and cable way transportation (e) Ocean transportation.
2. The type of transportation that involves locomotive trains is known as (a) Water transport (b) Air transport (c) cable transport (d) Rail transport (e) Caterpillar transport.
3. One of the following is a means of water transportation (a) Speed boat (b) Cargo plane (c) Trailer (d) Tractor (e) Locomotive train.
4. One of the following is a means for air transportation (a) Helicopter (b) RAV 4 Toyota jeep (c) Submarine (d) speed boat (e) passengers train.
5. One of the earliest means of water transport is the (a) Speed boat (b) train (c) motorcycle (d) paddle canoe (e) Jet.
EssayQuestions
1. In what ways can transportation contributes to economic development of any nation?

READING ASSIGNMENT:
Read ‘A comprehension text on physical, human and required geography for senior secondary schools and colleges by M.O Adegoke (pages 265 – 277).

PRE-READING ASSIGNMENT:
Read about the merits and demerits of the various modes of transportation
.
REFERENCE TEXT
1. A comprehensive text on physical human and regional geography for senior secondary schools and colleges (new edition) by M.O. Adegoke
2. Certificate physical human geography for senior secondary (new impression) by O.M. Areola et al.

TOPIC:TRANSPORTATION
CONTENT: (i)Merit and demerits of modes of transportation
(ii) Importance of transportation
(iii) Problems of transportation

Sub-Topic 1: MERIT AND DEMERIT OF TYPES OF TRANSPORTATION

ADVANTAGES OF ROAD TRANSPORTATION
1. It is flexible, because it can move persons or goods from door to door.
2. It is faster than most of rail and water transport.
3. Materials can be transported from most remote areas to urban area.
4. Through road transport, materials or goods brought from water and air transport can be distributed to destination point.
5. It is the commonest mode of transport.

DISADVANTAGES OF ROAD TRANSPORTATION
1. Highlands tend to hinder good road construction thereby causing delay of transport
2. Weather condition like heavy rains, winds etc. May delay or cause erosion that makes roads unmotorable.
3. Vegetational growth could make it difficult to travel through especially remote areas.
4. Careless drivers cause accidents on roads.
5. Armed robbers and thieves constitute problems to road transportation.

ADVANTAGES OF RAIL TRANSPORTATION
1. It is the cheapest means of carrying bulky goods.
2. The rate of accident is low.
3. Many people and much goods can be carried by a single train.
4. It is safer to travel by rail because of lower rise of armed robbery.

DISADVANTAGES OF RAIL TRANSPORTATION
1. It is slow and time wasting especially in developing countries.
2. The cost of maintenance of trains and the gauges is high.
3. It is not flexible, cannot go to where there is no gauge.
4. It is limited to low land areas.

SPECIALIZED LAND TRANSPORTATION
This includes (i) Rope ways and cable ways transportation (ii) pipeline transportation and power transmission.
Their advantage is that they are cheaper and can move things to far destinations through their line easily.
Their disadvantage is that they cannot go to where their lines are not available.

ADVANTAGES OF WATER TRANSPORTATION
1. It helps in transportation of bulky goods like Lorries, machineries, bulky agricultural goods etc.
2. It is relatively safe in transporting both national and international goods.
3. It is relatively cheap to maintain.
4. It does not require route constructions
5. No traffic congestion on water.

DISADVANTAGES OF WATER TRANSPORTATION
1. It is slow type of transportation
2. Some rivers have rapids and falls
3. Navigation can be hampered during winter in cold temperate regions where the water freezes.
4. The duration of volumes of water in some rivers limit transportation during dry seasons.
5. Strong wind and waves may cause ships to capsize.

ADVANTAGES OF AIR TRANSPORTATION
1. Ii is the fastest type of transportation
2. It is less affected by land topography, forest or ocean.
3. It is used to transport relief materials in emergency period.
4. It is efficient and saves time
5. It is used in transporting perishable goods.

DISADVANTAGES OF AIR TRANSPORTATION
1. The cost of transportation is high
2. When accidents occur, it can be fatal
3. It is prone to hijack
4. Planes are costly to purchase and maintain
5. Movement is restricted by unfriendly weather conditions.
6. It cannot perform door to door function.

EVALUATION
(i) What are the merits of road transport
(ii) Give 3 disadvantages of air transport
(iii) Give any 4 advantages of air transport.
(iv) Names 3 means each of travelling on land water and air.

SUB- TOPIC 2 IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPORTATION
Transportation is very important to the progress of the world in general as can be seen from the following
1. Transportation enables movement of people, goods services and information. Information moves across countries and cultures through transportation
2. Transportation allows people to trade locally and internationally.
3. It allows growth of industries through movement of people and capital, labour and raw materials to where they are needed.
4. Transportation leads to increase in trade between towns and countries.
5. It enables transfer of technology, diffusion of idea and innovations.
6. It enables nations to unite as the people travel among themselves or visit one another.
7. It provides employment to many people such as drivers, captains, pilots etc.

EVALUATION
Outline 4 reasons to show that transportation is important.

Sub-Topic 3: PROBLEMS OF TRANSPORTATION
Though transportation is very important, it also has its disadvantages
These include:
1. As one travels or transport goods, so he spend money and energy
2. All modes of transportation cause one form of pollution or the other.
3. Construction of roads, rail gauges etc, lead to environment degradation as tress is destroyed and land is broken.
4. Large areas of land that could have been used for agriculture and other purposes are claimed by construction of roads, routes, sea ports, airports etc. Some people farmlands are seize for the purpose.
5. Time is wasted in travelling from one place to the other.
6. Climatic elements most at times create problems for transportation e.g rain, pressure, wind etc. Affect all types of transportation one way or the other.

EVALUATION
Briefly state any 4 transportation problems.

GENERAL EVALUATION
1. Outline five ways in which transportation contributes to the economic development of a country (WASSCE June 2003)
2. Highlight 3 advantages and 3 disadvantages of water transport (WASSCE June 2005)
3. Explain four factors that hinder the use of water transport (WASSCE June 2005)
4. What 4 factors constitute problems of transportation in your country?
5. What are the advantages of people transportation?

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
Objective Test
1. One of the following is an advantage of road transportation (a) Door to door movement of goods or persons (b) movement of goods through gauges. (c) the fastest means of transportation (d) careless drivers cause accident (e) problem of thieves and armed robbers
2. One of the disadvantages of rail transportation is that (a) It is limited to low land areas (b) the rate of accident is low (c) much can be carried at a time (d) Information moves across countries (e) people can trade locally.
3. Transportation is important because of all but one of the following (a) it enables movement of people goods (b) it facilitates transfer of technology (c) it enhances national integration (d) leads to increase of trade among people (e) it is not good to travel.
4. The demerit of transportation is that (a) it enables door to door delivery of good (b) it helps to lift good from one country to the other (c) it enables growth of industries (d) causes pollution of one type or the other (e) materials can be transported from villages to towns.
5. One of the following is a transportation problem (a) it takes over land that would have been used for agriculture (b) it helps people move from place to place (c) it allows people to build houses (d) it helps in poultry production (e) it allows people to be employed.

EssayQuestions:
1. Describe five major limitations of air transport in Tropical Africa (b) what steps can be taken to improve the situation?

READING ASSIGNMENT:
Read ‘A comprehensive test on physical and human regional geography’ for senior secondary schools and colleges (pages 265 – 277)

PRE-READING ASSIGNMENT
Read about classification of industries.

REFERENCE TEXTS
1. A comprehensive text on physical human and regional geography for senior secondary school and colleges.
2. Unique senior school certificate (SSCE) past questions and answers (for SSCE, GCE & NECO) geography (theory / objectives 1988 – 2013).

TOPIC:INDUSTRY
CONTENT:
1. Classification of Industries
2. Factors affecting location of industries
3. Problems of Industrial location

Sub-Topic I: CLASSIFICATION OF INDUSTRIES
Industries are of 3 different types namely (i) Primary (ii) Secondary (iii) Tertiary industries.
1. Primary Industries are those industries involved extraction (removing) of raw materials provided by nature, e.g mining, fishing, lumbering, farming and livestock production.
2. Secondary industries turn raw materials into consumable or finished goods, e.g construction, building textile, ship building, iron and steel and chemical industries
3. Tertiary industries are concerned with rending services. Examples include direct services like trading, banking, teaching, medical and transportation. It can be indirect services like the police, soldiers, custom etc.
Industries can also be classified into local craft or cottage industries and manufacturing industries.
(i) Local craft or cottage industries depend on raw materials obtained from their immediate locality e.g leather works, pottery, carving, cloth wearing, basket making, brass making etc.
(ii) Manufacturing industries are those which can convert raw materials combined with other materials to produce finished goods, using special machines and equipment. Examples are textile, food processing, iron and steel, shoe, petro-chemicals etc.
Manufacturing industries are classified into 3 groups.

1. LIGHT INDUSTRIES: These are secondary industries. They produce relatively light weight goods such as matches, television sets, fans, books, and pencils. Examples are the leather industry, food industry, textile industry, printing and publishing industries etc.
2. CONSUMER GOODS INDUSTRIES: These industries deal with the turning of new materials into consumable goods. They produce goods like meat, dairy products, beer, coffee, spirits etc. They are normally located in cities e.g Lagos, Ibadan, Kaduna etc.
3. HEAVY INDUSTRIES: they are secondary industries whose products are bulky. Examples include metallurgical, petroleum and ship building industries.

EVALUATION
1. Name 3 types of industries
2. Describe tertiary industry

Sub-Topic 2: FACTORS AFFECTING THE LOCATION OF INDUSTRIES
To site a business in a place, people consider many factors before doing so. In the same manner, many factors are considered before sitting industries in a place. These factors include: (i) Nearness to raw materials (ii) Nearness to market (iii) Nearness to source of power (iv) Availability of capital (v) Availability of labour (vi) Adequate transport network (vii) Political stability (viii) Government policies.

1. NEARNESS TO RAW MATERIALS: For industry to be sited in a place, the owners usually consider or check up whether the raw materials needed for production are near the industrial site. This helps to reduce cost of transporting such materials or prevent delay caused by going to far places to purchase the raw materials.
2. NEARNESS TO MARKET: There are goods that need to be produced near their markets. This reduces cost of transportation and perishability of fragile goods.
3. NEARNESS TO POWER: Sources of power like electricity, coal thermal, petroleum product etc are needed for industrial production. Industries need to be sited where the source of power is available or near and steady.
4. AVAILABILITY OF CAPITAL: The industrial needs to have enough capital for purchase of materials fixed capital like heavy machines need to be in place for proper take off and steady production to take place in the industry.
5. AVAILABLE LABOUR: There should be highly qualified skilled labour. Unskilled labours are also needed to handle work in areas like sweeping, packaging, Offloading and loading materials.
6. ADEQUATE TRANPORT NETWORK: Transport network is needed to move raw materials in and transport finished materials to desired markets.
7. POLITICAL STABILITY: Stable government gives room for stable economy and promotes business. In this way industrialists can be sure of proper sales of their products and therefore site industries. However, political instability frightens investors.
8. GOVERNMENT POLICIES: Government can encourage the location of industries through certain policies like (a) creation of industrial zones in the country (b) granting credit facilities to industrialists (c) provisions of infrastructure like electricity, pipe born water, roads etc. (d) granting tax incentives or holidays to potential industrialists.

EVALUATION
i. What is a location industry?
ii. Name and explain five factors affecting location of industries.

Sub-Topic 3: PROBLEMS OF INDUSTRIAL LOCATION
Locating industries in any country is important in many ways. However there are many problems militating again location of industries as follows.
1. Inadequate Capital: To establish an industry a large capital is needed. This is not always available as many people in the world are poor.
2. Inadequate skilled man-power: Many countries, especially tropical Africa have a great number of unskilled labours. Many people read courses that render them unskillful while a large number are barely illiterate.
3. Inadequate infrastructure: lack of infrastructural facilities like good roads, pipe born water, steady electricity supply affect the location of industries especially in most African countries adversely.
4. Restrictive industrial and Administrative policies: In trying to solve some administrative problems, at times governments make certain policies that discourage the location of industries.
5. Shortage of raw materials: When raw materials are not adequately locally, getting of the materials abroad at times is delayed and lead to scarcity and high cost of the manufactured products.
6. Over population: In many African countries people just give birth without any thought of proper training and upbringing. This lead to over population because facilities become inadequate. Hence, resources that should be used to locate industries are channelled towards provision of amenities for the teaming unskilled population.
7. Over reliance on foreign products: Many people patronize foreign goods, more than locally made ones. Therefore, people prefer going into business of importation to establishing their own industries locally.

EVALUATION
i. Name and explain 5 factors militating against location of industries.
ii. How does over population affect location of industries.



GENERAL EVAULATION
1. Describe 3 ways in which light industries differ from heavy industries (WASSCE June 1993)
2. Give four reasons why light industries are more prevalent than heavy industries in tropical Africa (WASSCE June 1993)
3. Explain the term manufacturing industry (WASSCE June 1994)
4. Highlight the characteristics futures of manufacturing industries (WASSC June 1994)
5. Outline 4 factors affecting the location of industries and 3 problems of location industries.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
Objective Test
1. One if the following is a type of industry (a) Primary industry (b) river industry (c) ocean industry (d) lake industry (e) sea industry
2. Manufacturing industries (a) convert raw materials in combination with other materials to finished goods (b) mean catching of fish (c) mean farming of groundnuts (d) mean harvesting of pea nuts (e) mean learning in the classroom.
3. Which of the following is not a factor affecting the location of industries (a) Nearness to raw materials (b) nearness to market (c) availability of labour (d) nearness to power (e) students and teachers.
4. One of the following is a problem of location of industries (a) political parties (b) population census (c) restrictive industrial and administrative policies )d) parental care (e) students holidays.
5. Inadequate power supply (a) help industries grow (b) make workers active (c) does not matter in industries (d) is a problem of industrial location (e) make people to praise government.

Essay Questions:
1. Describe four problems facing cement industry in Tropical Africa

READING ASSIGNMENT:
Read Essential Geography for senior secondary schools (pages 215 – 216)

PRE-READING ASSIGNMENT
Read about basic concepts of Geography information system

REFERENCE TEXTS
1. Essential Geography for senior secondary schools by O.A. Iwena.
2. Unique past questions and answers for SSCE, GCE & NECO. Geography theory objectives 1988 – 2013.